--- title: PDG Blog | Performance Improvement (2) description: Performance Improvement | Blog for Performance Development Group, PDG, about getting business results from learning (2) --- [![](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-252652145-png/images/logo_tagline.png)](http://www.performdev.com//) # Blog ## [Teaching Non-Linear Instructional Design for Mobile Learning and Performance Support](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287134/Teaching-Non-Linear-Instructional-Design-for-Mobile-Learning-and-Performance-Support) Posted by [Reni Gorman](https://blog.performdev.com/author/reni-gorman) on May 4, 2011 6:44:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Reni Gorman](mailto:rgorman@performdev.com)** [![escher stairs](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-230804283-jpg/images/escher_stairs_small.jpg?width=270&height=257&name=escher_stairs_small.jpg "escher stairs")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2011/05/escher-stairs.jpg)*We all intuitively think in a linear fashion because the brain can only really focus on one thing at a time, then another, and another. Therefore, even when we think we are jumping around in our thoughts, we are still thinking one thing after another. Perhaps as a result of this, many of us also write in a linear fashion. Therefore, it is not surprising that many instructional designers create course content linearly; it is difficult to think of a course or a story any other way.. However, when people use newer technologies, they tend to be very non-linear, be it surfing the web, using mobile devices or (especially) performance support systems. You never know where learners are coming from when they land on your web page—or your module. You also don’t know how much they already know. So, how do you to anticipate all of this when creating content, and, ideally, create content that addresses multiple learner types who arrive there from any place without any pre-existing knowledge? When the web first went commercial (.com), I teamed up online magazine web producers with instructional designers and together they were able to create very interactive, instructionally sound, non-linear content. However, that was in the 90s, the stone age of interactive technology. In today’s world, we need to run as lean as we can. So let me share some of the techniques that worked for me when teaching how to design non-linear content; which, remember, is totally counterintuitive to what many instructional designers have been doing for years. Ask your instructional designers to create a storyboard with modules that are truly context independent (in other words, that can be accessed from any path with any existing knowledge and will still make sense). Tell them to try to create the smallest possible modules; think online magazine publishing: one article is usually one page. Once they come back with their storyboards, pull out a module from the middle and see if it makes sense out of context. Does it indicate where you can go to “backtrack” and catch up?  What would happen if a learner would go into just this piece of content without the benefit of the previous content? Then, think about modifying the content in a way that makes it easy for anyone with links to go backwards in the content for explanation (if needed), and links to get more deep/advanced. This is commonly referred to as a layered design—once again, very non-linear. You will not know who the learner is when you design; she may be the target audience or a manager of the target audience or an assistant. No matter who the learner is, the content should make sense, and guide the learner to other content where they can catch up or explore further. You also need to consider “neutralizing the language” as regards your audience. Don’t use terms like: “As the manager, you will…” In a good performance support system, it should not matter who the person is, the content should guide you and focus on the task you are trying to perform (or the information you are trying to learn) regardless of who you are I like to refer to this as designing object oriented content. Yes, learning objects (remember those?). It may be an old term but it is still relevant-- in fact more relevant than ever, since mobile devices require smaller and smaller chunks of context-independent content. Another tip is to watch for and remove is verbiage like “In a previous module, you learned...” When your audience is accessing content non-linearly, you don’t know what they have previously learned. Consider using phrases like “For more information” or “To learn more.” We’re all obsessed with interactivity, but interactivity is not nearly as relevant in performance support. If I need help on the job, a good checklist is worth much more than an interactive game, because a good checklist is “just in time.” In a good mobile performance support system we no longer need an intro with course objectives, but we do need to introduce the material. How do we do it from a performance support perspective? Learning objectives do not really teach anything—they tell what you will learn but you don’t learn from them. In performance support there is not much room for them—each learning object/page should teach you something. Take the user’s perspective and focus on the WIIFM: What’s In It For Me? For example: “You should use this tool, Mr. Investment Banker,  because hedge funds have changed over the last year and the new information will impact your business. Finally, instructional designers should consider all the ways this content could be used: Many of us are used to designing linear content, and linear design is a hard habit to break.. But it’s useful to step back and think about the possibilities. Invite others to brainstorm, share designs and content so you are not just looking at your own, as that is harder to critique, and guide each other to realizations through the art of inquiry. Creating valuable, snippets of information that contain one concise piece of transferrable knowledge will make content so much more effective in the business world where people do not always have time for extensive classroom training, or even sitting through a long online learning course. They want to go right to the information that they need and that may mean jumping around and reviewing the content out of sequence. Creating snippets of content is also the key to the age old dream all content creators have of authoring once and reusing in many ways. Happy authoring! [![The Mobile Learning rEvolution](https://no-cache.hubspot.com/cta/default/218299/e98e0cb0-5a81-4ce2-a1dd-7c8d6671ac26.png)](https://cta-redirect.hubspot.com/cta/redirect/218299/e98e0cb0-5a81-4ce2-a1dd-7c8d6671ac26) 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287134/Teaching-Non-Linear-Instructional-Design-for-Mobile-Learning-and-Performance-Support#comments) Topics: [Emerging Technologies](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/emerging-technologies), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Mobile Performance](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/mobile-performance) ## [Teaching Problem Solving](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287137/Teaching-Problem-Solving) Posted by [Reni Gorman](https://blog.performdev.com/author/reni-gorman) on Mar 14, 2011 10:32:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Reni Gorman](mailto:rgorman@performdev.com)* *[![multi-colored squares on a puzzle cube](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/rubik.jpg?w=295 "rubik")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2011/03/rubik.jpg)What is Problem Solving?* **Whenever a living creature has a goal but doesn’t know how to accomplish it, they engage in problem solving. (Holyoak & Morrison, 2005) Problem solving is considered the most complex of all intellectual functions, as a higher-order cognitive process that requires activation and control of more routine or fundamental skills in order to solve the problem at hand. (Goldstein & Levin, 1987) There are a number of methods for problem solving, including:** ** **Difference reduction**, in which we keep reducing the distance between the current state and the goal step by step; **Means-end analysis**, where we work backwards from end goal and set sub goals; and **Analogy strategy**, where we find similar problems we have solved with pervious strategies and try those same strategies on the new problem. This is just a basic list; there are many other problem-solving methodolgies. So, how can we set up our learners to succeed? ** ****Conditions under which Learners might Demonstrate Good Problem Solving** Gestalt psychologists have outlined a number of features that make problem solving more difficult, they are as follows: (Holyoak & Morrison, 2005)** ** **Grouping**, when all elements needed to solve the problem are not grouped, but rather scattered. Problem-solving becomes easier if all elements to solve a problem are grouped.   **Distraction**, think of distracters used when testing learners, the more there are the harder it is to solve the problem.   **Functional fixedness**, when solving the problem requires that something be used for something other than what it was made for. Using a bunch of pieces of cloth to tie together to form a rope latter is not as intuitive as if rope was just lying around.   **Set effect**, if we always use a certain method to solve a problem and suddenly that does not work, we have to unlearn the previously learned solution and it is harder than starting from scratch without the set effect. ** Based on the list above, if we offer learners a problem where: ** - All the elements needed to solve the problem are grouped, - There are no distractions - All objects used to solve the problem are used the way they were intended, and - The learners will not be reminded of previously experienced, typical problem solving strategies because the problem is so unique We will have created a condition where the learners will most likely demonstrate good problem solving. However, this approach may not be appropriate for everyone. This approach may only be appropriate for teaching beginners; perhaps advanced learners need just the opposite to challenge them.** ****Conditions under which Learners might have Difficulty with Problem Solving** In order to challenge more experienced learners, we can do just the opposite: make the conditions under which learners solve the problem more difficult. We can make sure all the elements needed to solve the problem are scattered and not grouped, there are several distractions, all objects used to solve the problem are used in a different way from the way they were intended or are used every day, and we can design the problem so it superficially looks like a very easy problem that would invoke memories of previous strategies, when in fact it is not and will need new strategies. ** **Setting up a problem in this manner would surely stretch the knowledge and skills of any good problem solver. The goal, of course, is making them a great problem solver.** *Resources*** *Goldstein F. C., & Levin H. S. (1987). Disorders of reasoning and problem-solving ability. In M. Meier, A. Benton, & L. Diller (Eds.), Neuropsychological rehabilitation. London: Taylor & Francis Group. Retrieved July 7, 2008 from [Wikipedia](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Problem_solving), the free encyclopedia.*** ***Holyoak, K.J. & Morrison, R.G. (2005). [The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning](http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Handbook-Reasoning-Handbooks-Psychology/dp/0521531012/ref=sr_1_1?ie=UTF8&qid=1300137025&sr=8-1). New York: Cambridge University Press* 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287137/Teaching-Problem-Solving#comments) Topics: [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Change Management](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/change-management), [Coaching](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/coaching), [Leadership](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/leadership), [Organizational Learning](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/organizational-learning) ## [Challenges and Ideas for Teaching Experts: Dual Process Reasoning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287142/Challenges-and-Ideas-for-Teaching-Experts-Dual-Process-Reasoning-Theory) Posted by [Reni Gorman](https://blog.performdev.com/author/reni-gorman) on Feb 4, 2011 4:54:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Reni Gorman](mailto:rgorman@performdev.com)*** [![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/horse_feathers_-_comedy_movie.jpg?w=300 "horse_feathers_-_comedy_movie")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2011/02/horse_feathers_-_comedy_movie.jpg) I have been doing training for 20+ years now and the audience that gives me the most pain in terms of designing instruction is an audience of experts. Why? Well because experts “know everything”--even if they don’t. That means they are often trying to align new knowledge into categories they already understand. The response to the content you’re teaching is often “Oh, yeah, that is just like…” and they bring up things that they can relate to in their own expert fields. Instructional designers are often encouraged to teach people with examples that learners can relate to—but is this true with experts as well? If experts try to relate everything (or most things) to other things they know, what happens if they get it wrong? Then their brains have just encoded information in an incorrect way—which is not easy to change. It also makes me wonder, maybe this is true for all of us, not just experts. It is just that experts are vocal about it. We know as learning designers that misperceptions have to be uncovered and dealt with upfront before learning can happen in the “right way.” So what can we do? Well, [dual process reasoning theory](http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Dual_process_theory) indicates that two systems collide when it comes to reasoning of any kind. ([Holyoak & Morrison, 2005](http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Handbook-Reasoning-Handbooks-Psychology/dp/0521531012)) System 1 is our evolutionary system reflecting a collection of innate modules. Think of this as our instincts; they are so fast and automatic that they do not even register in our consciousness until after the reaction. Kind of like when people jump to very quick conclusions about what they know. System 2 is our intellect, our cognition; it is slow as we think things over and reason about the problem at hand. When we get brand new information that we can’t relate to anything we already know, we actually have to think it through as we learn it; that when we use System 2. After we think it through we may well find something we can relate the new information to—but the point is, we have thought it through instead of jumping to conclusions. Can we create conditions to which System 1 cannot react? Can we set learners up to have to reason and think things through? Maybe we should try. How? Perhaps by giving learners a problem with which they are not familiar with at all. Try it and let me know how you make out! Resources: Holyoak, K.J. & Morrison, R.G. (2005). [The Cambridge Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning.](http://www.amazon.com/Cambridge-Handbook-Reasoning-Handbooks-Psychology/dp/0521531012) New York: Cambridge University Press. 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287142/Challenges-and-Ideas-for-Teaching-Experts-Dual-Process-Reasoning-Theory#comments) Topics: [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Cognition](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/cognition) ## [Virtual Immersive Environments: From Theory to Practice, Part 6: It's a Poor Craftsman Who Blames His Tools](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287148/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-6-It-s-a-Poor-Craftsman-Who-Blames-His-Tools) Posted by [Rich Mesch](https://blog.performdev.com/author/rich-mesch) on Dec 14, 2010 9:54:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share)  ***[by Rich Mesch](mailto:rmesch@performdev.com)*** I’ve been a musician for most of my life, and over the last several years I’ve focused my energy on the mandolin. The mandolin is a diabolically complex little instrument, and I became fascinated with the way they were constructed. So, perhaps ill-advisedly, I purchased a mandolin kit and set about building one myself. Initially, I thought it turned out rather well, looking like this: [![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/all-done-1.jpg?w=300 "All Done 1")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/all-done-1.jpg)[![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/all-done-3.jpg?w=300 "All Done 3")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/12/all-done-3.jpg) And I kept feeling that way until I played it. The tone was not unlike a cat battling a raccoon in a submarine. I was crestfallen; I had used the same tools and the same materials as the pros, and it looked pretty good. Why wouldn’t it sing?  So what does this have to do with VIEs? Simply this: producing great results means having more than the right tools—it means having the right skills. I have seen too many organizations go through an arduous process in selecting their VIE platform, only to have the whole effort fall flat when the platform fails to magically change everybody’s lives. I wouldn’t expect to go to Home Depot and buy some wood and tools and come home and magically be a great cabinet-maker. I would expect to spend some time honing my skills—or, failing that, hiring someone who already had great skills to do the building for me. The rules of instructional design don’t change because we’re working in a virtual environment—they may expand, but they don’t change. Poor tools may sabotage great design, but poor design can’t be overcome by great tools. If you need some ideas on great design, I’ll make my 50th recommendation of Karl Kapp and Tony O’Driscoll’s wonderful book, **[Learning in 3D](http://www.learningin3d.info/)**. Or feel free to read the other entries in this series. I’m using VIEs to make this point, but really, the point is pretty universal. Great technology doesn’t create great design; great *designers* create great design. But great technology makes great design really sing. If you have both, you have magic. 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287148/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-6-It-s-a-Poor-Craftsman-Who-Blames-His-Tools#comments) Topics: [Emerging Technologies](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/emerging-technologies), [Virtual Worlds](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/virtual-worlds), [Series](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/series), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning in 3D](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-in-3d) ## [Virtual Immersive Environments: From Theory to Practice, Part 5: Encouraging Adoption](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287149/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-5-Encouraging-Adoption) Posted by [Rich Mesch](https://blog.performdev.com/author/rich-mesch) on Nov 17, 2010 7:24:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[![shrug](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/shrug.jpg?w=207 "shrug")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/11/shrug.jpg)[by Rich Mesch](mailto:rmesch@performdev.com)** This is the second entry based on my conversations with Dr. Keysha Gamor, a fellow aficionado of 3D learning. In the last entry, I wrote about Keysha’s experience implementing Virtual Reality solutions in secondary education. In this entry, I wanted to share some of the conversations we had on the effectiveness of Virtual World platforms and the acceptance (or lack thereof) that we’ve seen in organizations. As Keysha works mostly with government and military, she brings a unique perspective (I work almost exclusively with corporations). Generally speaking, government and military have had a higher adoption rate for 3D learning than the business world. What are they finding effective about the virtual environment, and what does the corporate world have yet to learn? I asked Keysha if she was seeing higher levels of adoption of Virtual Immersive Environments (VIEs) in the public sector, and she agreed that was the case. However, many of these initiatives are in a pilot or exploratory phase. And the biggest concern in the public sector is similar to the private sector: how do we ensure data security? So how do we mainstream this capability? We brainstormed many possibilities, but it really comes down to three categories: * - **What are the barriers to adoption now?** Much has been written about the technological barriers, but not enough about the cultural barriers. For example: - **What are the clear success stories?** One of the most successful implementation of VIEs today is military simulations. Military trainers have identified real problems troops face in the field and created scenarios to address those problems. Obviously, many military situations involve life-or-death decisions, so accuracy is critical. Military simulations use real geospatial data to map the terrain to closely match what the real life experience. And the military is not satisfied with 3D learning, but is also looking to bring smells into the virtual space; not only is the ability to analyze what you smell critical in combat situations, olfactory is often identified as the most evocative sense as pertains to memory. - **What’s changing in our culture that will support adoption? **Some of us are old enough to remember when e-mail was a new and scary technology. But not only was it adopted, it became integral to the way we live our lives. As we move to adopt VIEs, we need to consider the social climate. We need to realize that we aren’t in the mainstream. One of the factors that is helping us to move forward is Social Media. Social Media has become highly integrated into our lives. Now that people have had their eyes opened to the possibilities of online social environments, they’re starting to dream a little bit. That’s the momentum we need to make this capability mainstream. * *One of Keysha’s parting thoughts was how much the movie Avatar helped her talk about VIEs. While the movie itself doesn’t have anything to do with VIEs, many people were unfamiliar with the word “avatar” before they saw the film. Avatar helped build the common language that allows us to have these conversations with others—and a common language is the first step to successful change. 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287149/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-5-Encouraging-Adoption#comments) Topics: [Emerging Technologies](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/emerging-technologies), [Virtual Worlds](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/virtual-worlds), [Series](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/series), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Simulation](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/simulation) ## [Using Storytelling in Learning, Part 5: The Goal-Based Scenario](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287150/Using-Storytelling-in-Learning-Part-5-The-Goal-Based-Scenario) Posted by [Rich Mesch](https://blog.performdev.com/author/rich-mesch) on Oct 11, 2010 9:30:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Rich Mesch](mailto:rmesch@performdev.com)* [![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/goals.jpg?w=210 "Goals")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/goals.jpg)So what’s the goal of this story? **Okay, so there’s a question you don’t often get when discussing novels or plays. What’s the goal? Well, the goal is to get to the last page of the book, or the curtain call at the end of the play. But when you’re writing stories for learning, the question takes on a different meaning. Not only are you telling a great story, you’re supposed to be helping your learner improve his or her performance. Great learning stories include Goal-Based Scenarios. In simplest terms, the story includes a goal or a set of goals that need to be achieved; the point of going through the story is to achieve the goal. That sounds simple enough, but here’s the key: the nature of the goal impacts the way you perceive the story. Confused? Let’s break it down.** **     So how do you create a Goal-Based Scenario? In order to create good story-based learning, you need to be consultative. You need to understand the subtleties of the job and challenges your learners face in achieving success. For example, if I’m learning selling skills, my ultimate goal is probably to close a sale. But what are the subtleties of effectively closing? Is my customer more likely to buy if I take one path over another? Will I sell more if I’m able to meet my customer’s boss, who has more buying authority? Will I sell more long-term if I’m able to build a good relationship? Am I afraid to talk too much for fear my customer will realize I don’t know as much as I claim to know? If you’d like to know more about Goal-Based Scenarios, here are a few references:** [http://www.eduweb.com/goalbasedscenarios.html](http://www.eduweb.com/goalbasedscenarios.html) [http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/models/gbs.html](http://www.edtech.vt.edu/edtech/id/models/gbs.html) [http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-227-pg.html](http://www.engines4ed.org/hyperbook/nodes/NODE-227-pg.html)** 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287150/Using-Storytelling-in-Learning-Part-5-The-Goal-Based-Scenario#comments) Topics: [Series](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/series), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Storytelling](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/storytelling), [Simulation](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/simulation) ## [Virtual Immersive Environments: From Theory to Practice, Part 4: From Virtual Reality to Virtual Worlds](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287151/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-4-From-Virtual-Reality-to-Virtual-Worlds) Posted by [Rich Mesch](https://blog.performdev.com/author/rich-mesch) on Oct 5, 2010 8:10:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) [![woman with virtual reality head gear](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/virtual-reality-8.jpg?w=300 "woman with virtual reality head gear")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/10/virtual-reality-8.jpg)*[** by Rich Mesch**](mailto:rmesch@performdev.com)* I recently had the pleasure of speaking at the SALT conference in Arlington, VA. While there, I was fortunate enough to meet Dr. Keysha Gamor, a fellow-presenter who also has a passion for Virtual Immersive Environments and 3D Learning. Keysha was good enough to allow me to interview her for this article. Given its location, it probably won't surprise you that the SALT conference attracts many participants from Government and Military, some of the earliest advocates of 3D Learning. Keysha works extensively with both areas, so I was anxious to learn about her experiences. But what most intrigued me is that Keysha's perspective was firmly rooted not in Virtual Worlds, but in Virtual Reality. What connections can we make, I wondered, between the effectiveness of Virtual Reality (VR) and the effectiveness of Virtual Worlds? As part of her graduate work, Keysha worked with the University of Georgia and NASA to determine how fully immersive VR could be used to teach complex abstract concepts. The goal of the study was not to look at VR as a unique or special interaction, but from the perspective of everyday usage in a teaching environment. The study, called “The Science Space Program,” focused on teaching science concepts to middle school and high school students, and utilized some pretty serious VR equipment that was shuttled from school to school. Activities in the study included exploring concepts like velocity (what happens to an object going at high rates of speed?), static electricity, and other types of physics issues. Except that rather than focusing on abstract concepts, students were actually able to get inside a particle; they could actually become the particle to understand what happens to it. Students participated in groups of 3; one student would wear a head-mounted display, another would direct his/her activities, and a third would observe. Each student got to play each role. For the final exam, each student designed their own rollercoaster, using physics concepts they had learned. Keysha says she was amazed at how well they were able to do—the accuracy of the mathematics and physics used by the students in creating their rollercoasters was remarkable. It’s worth noting that these were “average” students, not gifted; students who were incapable of comprehending these concepts before succeeding with the VR exercise. It’s a great story, and a great example of how contextualized learning drives comprehension and application. In fact, the first question I asked Keysha was around context; didn’t the success of the study indicate the value of contextualization, and not necessarily VR? Aren’t their other ways of contextualizing learning to have a similar outcome? Her response was, yes, it was definitely about context, but the VR technology provided a contextualized experience that couldn’t be provided any other way. Most of us don’t have Virtual Reality equipment cluttering up our offices. So are their ways to have a similar impact using more readily-available Virtual Immersive Environment (VIE) technologies? Well, Keysha and I discussed that as well… and I’ll report out on our conversation in the next entry in this series! 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287151/Virtual-Immersive-Environments-From-Theory-to-Practice-Part-4-From-Virtual-Reality-to-Virtual-Worlds#comments) Topics: [Emerging Technologies](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/emerging-technologies), [Virtual Worlds](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/virtual-worlds), [Series](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/series), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement) ## [The Science Behind Learning: Cognitive Tips and How Tos for Corporate Training (Part 6)](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287159/The-Science-Behind-Learning-Cognitive-Tips-and-How-Tos-for-Corporate-Training-Part-6) Posted by [Reni Gorman](https://blog.performdev.com/author/reni-gorman) on Jul 22, 2010 9:56:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Reni Gorman](mailto:rgorman@performdev.com)* ** ### **Tip #6: Provide many examples and practice exercises in which the same underlying concept is at work.** **[![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/brain-4.jpg?w=286 "brain 4")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/brain-4.jpg)*Cognitive Psychology:* *Provide examples to facilitate transfer and meaningful deliberate practice to promote understanding and increase memory performance. *** ### **Why (Justification):** Bransford et al. (2000) recommend that teachers provide “many examples in which the same concept is at work”. (p. 20) *In a study by Gick and Holyoak (1980), they presented subjects with a story of a general who breaks up his army into several smaller groups to take different roads to avoid setting off mines. They still all arrived at the same time and were able to take over the capital. Then subjects were ask to solve a problem where the doctor had to radiate a tumor with enough force to destroy it but without harming the tissue around it. Subjects were told to use the story as the model to solve the problem and most subjects realized that the strategy is to break up the radiation source into smaller rays and focuses them only on the tumor so that the strongest radiation is only there. * “Hands-on experiments can be a powerful way to ground emergent knowledge...” (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 22) However there are different ways to practice. Consider doing math homework with the use of formulas and theorems. If you just followed the rules of the formula, you may have completed your homework in less time than if you truly went through the formula to fully and deeply understand all the ins and outs of the formula. Students who understand the reasons behind a formula can usually remember it much better and apply it much better in the long run. They may even be able to more easily learn or transfer to related mathematical (or other) information that shares the same abstract underlying core concepts, or knowledge elements. (Anderson, 2000) “In mathematics, experts are more likely than novices to first try to understand the problems, rather than simply attempt to plug numbers into formulas.” (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 41) *Paige and Simon (1966) conducted a study where they presented subjects with an algebra problem. The expert group quickly realized that the problem was logically impossible.* In addition, practice will help your learners remember and recall faster. According to the power law of learning, your memory performance improves as a power function of practice. (Anderson, 2000) *In a study by Pirolli and Anderson (1985) subjects practiced sentences and their speed to recall the sentence improved the more they practiced, before leveling off.* “Students’ abilities to acquire organized sets of facts and skills are actually enhanced when they are connected to meaningful problem-solving activities, and when students are helped to understand why, when and how those facts and skills are relevant.” (Bransford et al., 2000, p. 23) Therefore, just as we draw a line between memorizing facts and learning with understanding, we must differentiate practice from deliberate practice. Practicing the mathematical formula by applying it to problem after problem is not the same as “deliberate practice” where you may apply the formula, and as you do, continuously check and recheck your own understanding. This means you use metacognitive strategies to insure a deep level of understanding. (Bransford et al., 2000) This is also consistent with the depth of processing theory that states that information processed at a deeper level of analysis improves memory for that information. ### **How (Application):** #### **References** ** Anderson, J. R. (2000). *Cognitive Psychology and Its Implications: Fifth Edition*. New York, N.Y.: Worth Publishers. Bransford, J. D., Brown, A. L., & Cocking, R. R. (2000). ***How People Learn: Brain, Mind, Experience, and School*. Washington, D.C.: National Academy Press**. Gick, M. L., & Holyoak, K. J. (1980). **Analogical problem solving. *Cognitive Psychology, 12,* 306-355.** Paige, J. M., & Simon, H. A. (1966). **Discipline-specific Science Education and Educational Research: The Case of Physics. Paper prepared for the Committee on Developments in the Science of Learning for the Sciences of Science Learning: An Interdisciplinary Discussion.** Pirolli, P. L., & Anderson, J. R. (1985). **The role of practice in fact retrieval. *Journal of Experimental Psychology; Learning, Memory and Cognition, 11,* 136-153. 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287159/The-Science-Behind-Learning-Cognitive-Tips-and-How-Tos-for-Corporate-Training-Part-6#comments) Topics: [Series](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/series), [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Cognition](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/cognition), [Metacognition](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/metacognition) ## [Bridging the Performance Gap: Training is Just Part of the Solution](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287162/Bridging-the-Performance-Gap-Training-is-Just-Part-of-the-Solution) Posted by [Reni Gorman](https://blog.performdev.com/author/reni-gorman) on Jul 1, 2010 11:11:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) ***[by Reni Gorman](mailto:rgorman@performdev.com)* [![](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/bridge.jpg?w=300 "bridge")](http://pdginnovates.files.wordpress.com/2010/07/bridge.jpg)**I have been designing and delivering learning interventions for nearly 20 years (dare I say), and I always tell my clients that the learning intervention is just the start of creating change in behavior. There are many other components and models but I boil it down to the most necessary: 1. Goal setting—people need to know what is expected of them. Sounds simple? Too simple? I agree and yet many people do not even consider it. I have seen this assumption so many times. We as learning professionals know better than to make assumptions. Help your clients check their assumptions! All you have to do is randomly ask a couple of learners. If goals are not clear then depending on the level of behavior change needed you can address it multiple ways: 2.  Learning intervention—I think we all have this one down! 3. Reinforcement and feedback—As we all know, learning is a process, not an event. Therefore, there always has to be some reinforcement and feedback to truly affect performance. This could manifest in: So, the lesson learned, to use L&D lingo, is: make sure every one of your training plans at lease considers these topics and ask your clients the tough questions. They may not understand and resist at first, but you will start them thinking, and that, is the first step to recovery. 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287162/Bridging-the-Performance-Gap-Training-is-Just-Part-of-the-Solution#comments) Topics: [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Organizational Learning](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/organizational-learning), [Talent Management](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/talent-management) ## [How to Train an Executive: Quick, Relevant Content and Meaningful Conversations](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287166/How-to-Train-an-Executive-Quick-Relevant-Content-and-Meaningful-Conversations-with-Peers-and-SMEs) Posted by [Rich Mesch](https://blog.performdev.com/author/rich-mesch) on May 27, 2010 6:15:00 AM - [Tweet](https://twitter.com/share) **by [Reni Gorman](mailto:%20rgorman@performdev.com) and [Rich Mesch](mailto:%20rmesch@performdev.com) ****55 and Older Execs Don’t Like Training** **![reni gorman 092412](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-243613966-jpg/images/reni_gorman_092412.jpg?width=78&height=109&name=reni_gorman_092412.jpg)Reni:** I read an article on The Economist titled: [Executive education and the over-55s: Never too old to learn](https://pdgmail.performdev.com/exchweb/bin/redir.asp?URL=http://www.economist.com/business-finance/business-education/displaystory.cfm?story_id=16036092). The focus was about the trend that older executives are shunning corporate training. The reason? To put it bluntly: They are sick and tired of going and sitting in training. Why? Many assume they will not learn anything earth shattering, while others just don’t have the patience/time away from their job. Training has to be “worth it”. The article goes on to discuss what does work, one being sending executives to prestigious schools. They won’t go to internal executive training, but they will go to external training at reputable institutions. Why? Probably because they feel like they will really learn. So, it is not really that they don’t like learning, rather they don’t like corporate training.** ****The Generational Lie** **![RichM 001](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-243784202-jpg/images/richm_001.jpg?width=83&height=117&name=richm_001.jpg)Rich**: I attended several learning conferences this year, and at each one, I heard some variation on this message: it's time to get past old school training models, because the generation of 20-somethings entering the work force don't learn that way. We need social media for the 20-somethings, because that's how they learn. We need virtual environments for the 20-somethings, because that's how they learn. And every time, I wanted to scream from the back of the room, "HEY! I'M A 40-SOMETHING, AND I LEARN THAT WAY, TOO!"** **Where on earth did we get the notion that because employees of a certain age have greater exposure to "traditional" learning methods that we like it better? Or that we're somehow resistant or techno-phobic? Every generation has its share of resisters, but most of us like trying new things, and we especially like making good use of our time and being successful.** ****55 and Under Don’t Like Training Either** **![reni gorman 092412](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-243613966-jpg/images/reni_gorman_092412.jpg?width=78&height=109&name=reni_gorman_092412.jpg)**Reni: I don’t know about you, but all of the above applies to me and I am not yet in the over 55 category. Perhaps the under 55s “fake it” better and at least show up to training but most of the time don’t you want to run screaming? I know I do—and I admit that even though I am a learning and development professional. Yikes! What does that say about most corporate training? I also know when I go to internal training events I am antsy and can’t wait to get out and go back to work, but I am attending graduate school at Columbia University’s Teachers College and, most of the time, once I get there, I really enjoy what I am learning and am really focused and “present”. ** ****Henry Mintzberg and the Role of the Manager** **![RichM 001](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-243784202-jpg/images/richm_001.jpg?width=83&height=117&name=richm_001.jpg)Rich:** The driver behind the article in The Economist is researcher Henry Mintzberg. I might have guessed that we'd find Mintzberg at the bottom of this. Mintzberg did a groundbreaking research many years ago about what managers actually do each day. Prior to his research, there was a general belief that they sat in big offices, smoked cigars, and made big strategic decisions. Mintzberg followed managers around for weeks and recorded everything they did. Ultimately what he found was that a manager's day is a series of meetings, most of them 5 minutes or less, and that they are generally focused on dozens, if not hundreds of things at once. For us today, that seems pretty obvious; but when Mintzberg originally did the research, it was startling, since it didn't fit the perception of the role. He effectively changed the perception of management, and a lot of the way we perceive management now can be traced back to Mintzberg. Glad to see he's still trying to change our perceptions. ** ****So How Do You Train an Executive and What is the Role of Training?** **![reni gorman 092412](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/file-243613966-jpg/images/reni_gorman_092412.jpg?width=78&height=109&name=reni_gorman_092412.jpg)**Reni: Short bursts/chunks of training, making content really relevant to the workplace, and learning from peers such as through mentoring and communities of practice. I don’t know about you, but when I read this bells went on and my experience and intuition said: YES, but not just for 55s and older—for the rest of us too! At the end of the day we all want the content quick and relevant, and the conversations (with peers and SMEs) meaningful. We learn from each other best and most of all. My first thought when I am stuck is to ask a peer and/or expert. The content snippets are just an appetizer. So, what training professionals could best do is provide the short snippets of content and help put learners in situations, where they can have the conversations. Mentoring meetings, communities of practice gatherings are perfect for such things. Perhaps give people a learning guide to spark the conversation and then let it go where inquiring minds want to take it and learning will surely flourish.  What does this come down to? Highly interactive, excellent, out of the ordinary instructional design. It is possible, just ask yourself: would I run screaming from what I am designing or would I get into it? Be honest with yourself and [great design](http://www.performdev.com/our-capabilities/build/) will flow and flourish too! 0 Comments [Click here to read/write comments](https://blog.performdev.com/blog/bid/287166/How-to-Train-an-Executive-Quick-Relevant-Content-and-Meaningful-Conversations-with-Peers-and-SMEs#comments) Topics: [Performance Improvement](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement), [Learning Theory](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/learning-theory), [Leadership](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/leadership), [Talent Management](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/talent-management) [Previous](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement/page/1) [All posts](https://blog.performdev.com/all) [Next](https://blog.performdev.com/topic/performance-improvement/page/3) ### Subscribe via E-mail ### Learn More [![Training the World, Using Archetypes to Create a Practical Global Learning Strategy](https://blog.performdev.com/hs-fs/hub/218299/file-358797837.png) ](http://cta-service-cms2.hubspot.com/cs/c/?&cta_guid=0cabe23f-e7ea-4020-a198-11968c831b68&placement_guid=4c2f0fb4-9dd8-4120-aacc-83a009df375d&portal_id=218299&redirect_url=bBflNZ6KpYUSLaxc7e4aT6OTOnBR6a91PM1Ksf8%2ByU8QGcxmQ1z7yHb2U8BYYQ2g9I0ioDL%2BURdS3U9bPs6ZtnP%2BDQg4yC8TU59MVOEoGqvUtnNziJ/eTuTGgMou10ru&iv=BT40CgTgk%2B8%3D&hsutk=ac9460655b8a7ff7c5651977fa5b1751&utm_referrer=http%3A%2F%2Fblog.performdev.com%2Fblog&canon=) ### Latest Posts ### Posts by category - 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